'Analysis of Metabolic Strategies Essay\r'

'There be more micronutrients (substances needed in sm each(prenominal) in totally amounts) innate to honorable living. These micronutrients include the vitamins, minerals and aminic group venereal infections. A wakeless f ar includes the decent(a) ratio of macronutrients along with the essential quantities of micronutrients. What is their bio chemic or metabolic function? Sub variant of the world(a) network was often based on the biochemical function of the pathway (i. e. aminic group astringent transfiguration, stand metabolism).\r\nAs an physical exercise of a biochemical pathway, demean the first four reactions of glycolysis as follows: (1) glucose + ATP â€(hexokinase)? glucose-6-phosphate + adenosine diphosphate; (2) glucose-6-phosphate ? (phosphoglucose i roughrase)? fructose 6-phosphate; (3) fructose 6-phosphate + ATP â€(phosphofructose kinase)? Fructose 1,6-diphosphate + automatic data affect; (4) fructose 1,6-diphosphate -(aldolase)? dihydroxya cetone phosphate + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Metabolism to return zipper for biochemical functions is carried step forward by all cells.\r\nSome weaves, because of their specialized functions in the multi-cellular organism, put one across several(p kind-redicate) metabolic strategies. Muscle and colored break accompaniment designs in overall metabolism: the thinker has puritanical(postnominal) needs. Describe, comp ar and contrast the metabolic strategies during periods of high metabolic activity of heftiness builder, liver, brain, and the general consistency tissues and in the ‘ plyeral saturnineicial’ (digesting a meal) and ‘unfed’ (no nutrients coming from digestive tact) states.\r\nHaving extremely directional reactions at start and finish of a pathway is good metabolic strategy. The hexokinase and phosphofructokinase steps coerce substrates into the sequence; the pathway cat valium goddess continue heretofore if substrates ar s ignifi discounttly depleted. Pyruvate kinase clears intermediates out of the pathway. Vitamins, minerals and amino panellings are essential organic nutrients, essential molecular structures for demeanor processes, that we plenty non synthesize and must take in, in qualified amounts, as food.\r\nThe following are the biological and metabolic functions of vitamins. Water soluble vitamin such as Vitamin C or ascorbic superman, which fuel be institute in papaya, oranges, orange juice, kiwifruit, strawberries, bottomtaloupe, sweet red peppers, cauliflower, broccoli, brussels, sprouts, green peppers, grapefruit, kale, and strawberries, is historic in the tax deduction of collagen, which is the main structural fraction of the skin as intumesce as umpteen otherwise torso tissues.\r\nVitamin C as well as full treatment as a stringy antioxidant, support in the absorption of urge, is minute in fighting remove infections, succors alleviate allergic reactions, and aids in annoy healing. Another water supply soluble vitamin, Thiamin or Vitamin B1 peck be anchor in scat pork, helianthus seeds, wheat germ, satisfying or enriched instill products, organ atomic number 76 marrows and nuts and legumes. It is the inevi put back coenzyme or admirer molecule in the metabolism of carbohydrates for competency, and proper infection of tenderness signals. It is in addition necessary for median(prenominal) muscle function, maturation, digestion, deoxyribonucleic acid replication, and universal appetite.\r\nRiboflavin or Vitamin B2, which earth-closet be establish in take out, yogurt, cocoa, cheeses, eggss, meat and green two-leafed vege dining tables, is necessary in the release of vim from carbohydrates, the activation of many vitamins, and the breakdown of racy. Also take for the radiation pattern maturation and tissue repair are the entailment of red filiation cells, corticosteroids, and glycogen. Niacin or Vitamin B3, which can be appoint in tuna, hali besides if, beef, chicken, turkey, pork, cereal grass grains, fortified cereals, seeds, legumes, peanut barelyter, is necessitate by all cells and vital in the release of cleverness from food.\r\nIt is overly required for the price reduction of protein, fat, and genetic material. It is also required for proper metabolism and brain function. Panthothenic acid or Vitamin B5, which is widely distributed in foods, can be ensnare in liver, peanuts, wheat germ, beer maker’s yeast, egg yolk, legumes, unharmed grain cereals, mushrooms, broccoli, avocados, royal jelly from bees. It is critical in the synthesis and breakdown of many em plant compounds. It is necessary for the metabolism of food and radiation diagram repellent function. Also plays a role in the synthesis of home(a) secretions, cholesterol, and neurotransmitters.\r\nBiotin is widely distributed and can be found in liver, soybean plantbeans, egg yolk, cereal, yeast, legumes, nuts . It is needed for proper muscle metabolism (especially carbohydrates and protein) and growth. It is critical in the take of roly-poly acids, prostaglandins, antibodies, digestive enzymes, hormones, and cholesterol. It is also Copernican in nicotinic acid metabolism. Folic acid is a synthetic level found in fortified cereals and supplements. It is also called Folate (natural frame of reference found in food). It can be found in brewer’s yeast, beans, spinach, wheat germ, asparagus, turnip greens, green spiny-leaved veggies, fortified cereals.\r\nIt is important in the metabolism of proteins and in the synthesis of new proteins. It is a necessary ingredient in the mathematical product of red line cells, necessary for normal cellular division and production of DNA. Folate also increases appetite and digestive acids. Research is also showing folate whitethorn take the risk for titty disease and definite cancers. Folate plays an important role in tissue growth and f unction and can significantly reduce the risk of neural tube defects (birth defects of the brain or spine).\r\nVitamin B12 or cobalamin, which can be found in meat and meat products, poultry, fish, yogurt, fortified cereals, fortified soy-milk, tuna, shellfish, eggs and fortified tofu, is important in metabolism, essential for DNA synthesis, production of red blood cells, and proper essence function. Inadequate absorption of the vitamin rather than inadequate dietary intake is responsible for more than 95% of the vitamin B12 insufficiency seen in the US. A strict vegetarian diet can fuck off a deficiency, although clinical symptoms may not appear for up to 20-30 years.\r\nVitamin B6 or pyridoxine, which can be found in potato, bananas, beans, walnuts, watermelon, meats, salmon and light meat of chicken, is needed for proper protein metabolism, the conversion of tryptophan to niacin, and the synthesis of fatty acids. It is Necessary for normal growth, proper brain and immune func tion, synthesis of red blood cells, and hormone dominion. Fat soluble vitamin corresponding vitamin A or retinol (comes from wight characters like egg yolks, butter, totally milk products, liver and fish liver oils) or beta-carotene (precursor to Vitamin A, which comes from plant sources like pumpkin, spinach (boiled), butternut pinch\r\ncantaloupe and dark leafy greens). It is a powerful antioxidant which protagonists the form fight free-radical damage and seems to go away nearly protection against cancer. It is essential for normal vision, reproduction, growth, immune function, fit skin and mucous membranes, and normal mug up growth and development. Vitamin D comes in the first place in foods of animal rakehell like eggs, liver, butter, fatty fish, salmon with bones, fortified soy milk and fortified foods such as milk and margarine. Vitamin D can also be do by the body when the skin is exposed to sunlight.\r\nIt is essential to maintain bone and teeth strength and i ntegrity. It also aids in calcium absorption. Vitamin E comes from draw oils (such as sunflower and safflower oil), wheat germ, unit grains, unroasted almonds, sunflower seeds, Brazil nuts, mango, green leafy vegetables and broccoli. Vitamin E is well on its way to becoming a superhero in the antioxidant army. Due to its fat-soluble nature it can do its antioxidant work where close to of the other antioxidants can’t go. Vitamin E is incorporated into cell membranes as well as guarding the the fat molecules in the bloodstream from free-radical damage.\r\nStudies have also shown that it is a potent stimulator of the immune system, percentage protect the thymus gland and guarding white blood cells from damage. Vitamin E has also been shown to reduce levels of inflammatory prostaglandins, which can lead to a number of health problems. By keeping the body’s level of Vitamin E from dropping you will benefit from a change magnitude incidence of various cancers, decreased risk of heart disease and strokes, and free-radical protection. When incorporating exercise and physical activity into your effortless life Vitamin E becomes even more important.\r\nAs you exercise, your rate of respiration increases which leads to an increase in the production of free-radicals. This increase in free-radical production has been shown to play an important role in causing worn muscle damage and inflammation after strenuous exercise. Vitamin K, which comes in the first place from plant foods, spinach, broccoli, kale, Brussels, sprouts, cabbage, lettuce, cereals, fruits, dairy products and meats. Bacteria in the gastrointestinal leaflet also provide a the body with vitamin K.\r\nIt is essential for proper blood clotting and plays a role in normal bone calcification. For the minerals like calcium, sources are milk, milk products, calcium fortified, orange juice, part-skim ricotta cheese, yogurt, cocoa, sardines, clams, oysters, turnip greens, mustard greens, broccoli , legumes and dried fruit. It is essential for normal bone and tooth formation, overall growth, blood clotting, regulation of heart rate, and proper nerve transmission. Phosphorus may come from meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, milk products, nuts, legumes, cereals, grains, hot chocolate, lettuce and tomato.\r\nIt is essential for a number of biochemical reactions in the body, especially cipher production, metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fat, and twist protein. It also gives strength to bones and teeth, and plays a role in the regulation of acid-base proportionateness, muscle contraction, kidney function, and proper nerve function. Magnesium, which comes from nuts and seeds, legumes, green vegetables, tofu, wheat germ, cereal grains, soybeans, chocolate, blackstrap molasses, lemon yellow, peas, carrots, seafood, brownness rice, parsley, lima beans and spinach.\r\nIt is essential in hundreds of biochemical reactions and a wide range of metabolic activities including the use of expertness and the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and genetic material. It is also necessary for proper nerve transmission, contraction of muscle, and the conversion of Vitamin D to its fighting(a) form. Spinach is essential in hundreds of biochemical reactions and a wide range of metabolic activities including the use of energy and the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and genetic material.\r\nIt is also necessary for proper nerve transmission, contraction of muscle, and the conversion of Vitamin D to its officious form. Sodium, which can be found in table salt, cured meat, cheese and clams, is necessary for the regulation of water balance at bottom the body, the passage of substances in and out of each cell, and the maintenance of a normal body pH. Also plays a role in the propagation of normal electrical nerve signals, muscle contraction, and the regulation of blood pressure. Potassium is an essential part of each cell in the body and r equired for normal growth.\r\nIt is also involved in the release of energy from food, the synthesis of protein, regulation of water balance in the body, proper nerve and muscle function, and regulation of blood pressure. Chloride can be found in table salt, seafood, tomatoes, rye and olives. It helps maintain water balance and acid-base balance in the body. Iron, which can be found in meat (provides bid in the non-heme form which is the easiest for the body to absorb), blackstrap molasses, clams, oysters, tofu, legumes, nuts and seeds, red meats, dark green leafy vegetables (Vegetables provide iron in the non-heme form, which is harder for the body to absorb.\r\n consume vitamin C with iron rich foods will help increase absorption), soybeans, pumpkin seeds, dried fruits, enriched and/or on the whole-grain, breads and cereals, is critical in making new red blood cells, immune defense cells, white blood cells, and normal brain function. Zinc, which can be found in oysters, wheat ger m, beef, liver, dark meat of turkey and, chicken, peanuts, whole grains, miso, legumes, sunflower seeds, blackstrap molasses, green peas, spinach, broccoli. It is essential for proper growth of skin, hair, and nails, healing wounds, and a healthy immune system.\r\nIt is necessary in many chemical reactions and for a normal sense of taste and smell. It also functions as a detoxifier of the body and plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Copper, which can be found in liver, shellfish, whole grains, mushrooms, cherries, legumes, cocoa, nuts, eggs, muscle meats, fish and poultry, is a critical component of the outer coating of nerve fibers, collagen, and used in the production of skin pigments. Also works with iron to make healthy red blood cells.\r\nSeleniem, which can be found in grains, seeds, potatoes, meat, poultry, fish, garlic, brewer’s yeast and wheat germ, is important antioxidant that works with vitamin E to protect the body from free-radical damage. It is als o associated with fat metabolism, a healthy immune system, and important to male fertility. Chromium, which can be found in wheat germ, brewer’s yeast, peas , chicken, corn oil mushrooms, prunes, nuts, asparagus, organ meats and whole-grain bread and cereals, is necessary for blood peag regulation and metabolism of fats and carbohydrates.\r\nIodine, which comes from iodized salt, saltwater seafood, sunflower seeds, mushrooms, eggs, beef liver, peanuts, spinach, pumpkin, broccoli, chocolate and kelp, is needed for proper thyroid gland feat and normal metabolism of cells. Manganese which comes from wheat bran, legumes, nuts, lettuce, leafy green vegetables, blueberries, pineapple, seafood, poultry, meat and tea, is needed for normal function of several other vitamins, and a variety of other biochemical roles in the body.\r\nIt also aids in proper fat metabolism, gaunt and connective tissues, production of energy, making cholesterol and DNA, proper brain function, and proces sing blood sugar. Molybdenum, which can be found in milk and milk products, soybeans, lentils, pasta, buckwheat, oats, rice, wheat germ and sunflower seeds, is important in many biochemical reactions, aids in the metabolism of iron, helps prevent gout by removing uric acid from the body, and helps the body burn fat. It is also part of healthy bones, teeth, kidney, and liver, and helps the body use its iron reserves. and helps the body use its iron reserves.\r\nFlouride, which comes from mackerel, sardines, salt pork, salmon, shrimp, meat, sunflower seeds, kale, potatoes, watercress, honey, wheat and tea, reduces dental caries and may understate bone loss by helping the body retain calcium. Nickel, which can be found in nuts, legumes, shellfish, cocoa products, green beans, spinach, rice and tea, is important in many biochemical reactions, and thought to play a role in the metabolism of fats and blood sugar regulation. Silicon, which can be found in whole grains, root vegetables and unrefined cereal products, is needed for healthy body tissues.\r\nVanadium can be found in shellfish, spinach, parsley, mushrooms, whole grains, dill seeds, black pepper, parsley, soy, corn and olives. Research has not documented exactly what cinque does for the body. It is likely that it plays a role in energy production, biochemical reactions, blood sugar and fat metabolism, and bone and teeth strength. Most foods contain less than 0. 3ug/g arsenic. Seafood is the richest source of arsenic. Arsenic has precise function in the body is still unknown, but it is likely that it plays a role in the metabolism of phospholipids.\r\nBoron, which can be found in fruits, vegetables, legumes and nuts is required for normal bone integrity. Amino acids are the principal building blocks of proteins and enzymes. They are incorporated into proteins by transfer ribonucleic acid according to the genetic code bandage messenger RNA is being decoded by ribosomes. During and after the closing assem bly of a protein, the amino acid content dictates the spatial and biochemical properties of the protein or enzyme. The amino acid backbone determines the primary sequence of a protein, but it is the nature of the locating chains that determine the protein’s properties.\r\nAmino acid side chains can be polar, non-polar, or practically neutral. Polar side chains tend to be present on the surface of a protein where they can interact with the sedimentary environment found in cells. On the other hand, non-polar amino acids tend to reside within the means of the protein where they can interact with similar non-polar neighbors. This can progress to a hydrophobic region within an enzyme where chemical reactions can be conducted in a non-polar atmosphere. Likewise, enzymes can also have polar amino acid substituents within the active site that provide a polar region in which to conduct biochemical synthesis.\r\nIn addition to their role in protein and enzyme synthesis, amino acids are actively involved in a broad range of functions in the body. For instance, the organic substances help form cells, heal damaged tissues, and produce antibodies. These antibodies are important to the body’s efforts to ward off potentially harmful invasions of viruses and bacteria (Weigel and Seitz, 2006). Also active as metabolic intermediates, amino acids are sufficient of transporting oxygen through the body and play a part in muscular function.\r\nSeveral of the amino acids, such as the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that is found in the central nervous system, but not in proteins, carry out very specialized roles in the body. Other examples of such amino acids include carnitine, which is pertain in fatty acid transport within a cell, as well as ornithine and citrulline, twain of which are key components in the body’s urea pass. Essential amino acids are largely contained in the greatest quantities in meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and other animal products.\r\nThey are also, found, however in grains, legumes, and similar vegetable sources of protein, though one or more essential amino acids may be missing from such foods. For this reason, vegetarians are generally urged to carefully consume a wide range of foods in order that they on a regular basis obtain the complete array of essential amino acids, since divergent plants lack diametrical types of the important compounds. Nevertheless, amino acid deficiencies are extremely rare in the United States, since Americans parking arealy consume twice as much protein as is considered necessary each day.\r\nMoreover, for athletes or other individuals who need greater amounts of amino acids than most people, supplements are widely available. Some amino acids are even prescribed as a form of medical treatment. Lysine, for example, is utilized to suppress the herpes virus and phenylalanine gains use in some pain and stamp therapies. Nevertheless, over-consumption of amino aci ds can be hazardous, since the compounds can be toxic in overabundanceive quantities. Eukaryotes, such as ourselves, are characterized by membrane bound internal compartments or organelles (Mergaert, et al.\r\n, 2006). These compartments allow cells to (a) conserve resources by producing proteins at the appropriate concentration only in these organelles, (b) fragmentize functional areas that might interfere with each other, e. g. , lysosomes, ER and nucleus, and (c) manage reactions in biochemical pathways. Aspects of the carbohydrate, amino acid and fatty acid metabolic processes we have considered have steps that occur in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrion or other cellular organelles (Embley and Martin, 2006).\r\nIn here, a multi-step reaction within a cell is catalyzed by enzymes. Almost every reaction that occurs within an organism (which is to that organism’s benefit) occurs along a biochemical pathway and is catalyzed one or a serial of enzymes. biochemical pathway s are discussed fully by Stryer (1987) â€Å"Biochemical pathways are the organizational units of metabolism, the pathways that energy and materials follow in the cell. ” A biochemical pathway may be anabolic, catabolic, or both. An anabolic biochemical pathway may be referred to as a biosynthetic pathway.\r\nAn example of a catabolic bioochemical pathway is transduction of the chemical energy found in foods into a usable form (digestion, glycolysis, cellular respiration). The biochemical pathways are glycolysis, citric acid beat, negatron transport system, lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. These different parts of the processes is performed in different cellular compartments. Citric Acid Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. All the reactions of the citric acid cycle take place in the mitochondrial matrix with the exclusion of succinic dehydrogenase, which is part of Complex II of the national membrane.\r\nIt is important not to regard FADH2 as the pr oduct of this reaction, which is still often done. FAD is the first, but only a transient, carrier of electrons from succinate to ubiquinone. Indeed the official crap of the enzyme is succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone). The mitochondrion is often regarded as the powerhouse of the cell, and this identification becomes much more meaningful if we remember that a flow of electrons is an electric current, and NADH and succinate provide the fuel for an electrical energy generator. The pathway is often called the electron transport chain, but its function is to create a flow of electrons (shown in Fig.\r\n1 as heavy red arrows) to provide the energy needed to translocate protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter-membrane dummy (Nicholson, 2002). The Electron Transport System occurs in the informal membrane of the mitochondria. Mitochondria function during aerobic respiration to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The respiratory enzymes and electron carriers for t he electron transport system are fixed within the inner mitochondria membrane. The enzymes for the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) are located in the matrix. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.\r\nIn eukaryotes, glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell. Some of the glycolytic reactions are keep in the Calvin cycle that functions inside the chloroplast. This is consistent with the detail that glycolysis is highly conserved in evolution, being common to nearly all living organisms. This suggests great ancientness; it may have originated with the first prokaryotes, 3. 5 cardinal years ago or more. Metabolism to present energy for biochemical functions is carried out by all cells. Some tissues, because of their specialized functions in the multi-cellular organism, have different metabolic strategies.\r\nMuscle and liver have peculiar(prenominal) roles in overall metabolism: the brain has specific needs. Describe, compare and contrast the metabolic strat egies during periods of high metabolic activity of muscle, liver, brain, and the general body tissues and in the ‘fed’ (digesting a meal) and ‘unfed’ (no nutrients coming from digestive tact) states. assimilating state is the period during which ingested nutrients read blood and some of these nutrients supply the energy need of the body while the remainder is stored. Post-absorptive state is the period during which the GI tract is empty of nutrients and body stores must supply required energy.\r\nIn the absorptive state, carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed primarily as monosaccharides and amino acids, respectively, into the blood while fat is absorbed as triacylglycerols into the lymph. During this state, glucose is the major energy source and some of it is converted to glycogen and stored in skeletal muscle and liver. In fat tissue, glucose is transformed and stored as fat. Fatty acids of plasma chylomicrons are released within adipose tissue capill aries and form triacylglycerols. Most amino acids enter cells and are used to synthesize proteins and any excess amino acids are converted to carbohydrate or fat.\r\nOn the other hand, in the postabsorptive state, the net synthesis of glycogen, fat, and protein ceases, and net catabolism of these substances begins. Plasma glucose level is hold by Glycogenolysis, which is the hydrolysis of glycogen stores in liver, adipose tissues, brain, muscles, skeletal muscles, etc. ; Lipolysis, catabolism of triacylglycerols into glycerol and fatty acids in adipose tissues wherein any glycerol reaching the liver is converted to glucose; and protein is catabolized to glucose. References: Embley, T. M. , & Martin, W. (2006). Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges.\r\nNature, 440(7084), 623-630. Mergaert, P. , Uchiumi, T. , Alunni, B. , Evanno, G. , Cheron, A. , Catrice, O. , et al. (2006). Eukaryotic entertain on bacterial cell cycle and preeminence in the Rhizobium-legume symbiosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103(13), 5230-5235. Nicholson, D. 2002. Biochemistry and molecular biology Education Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 3-5. The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Stryer, Lubert (1987). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman. Weigel, C. , & Seitz, H. (2006). Bacteriophage replication modules. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 30(3), 321-381.\r\n'